Introduction:
The colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Uganda grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with different political systems and cultures. These differences prevented the establishment of a working political community after independence was achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79) was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla war and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at least another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986 has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. During the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential and legislative elections.
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Geography:
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Climate:
KAMPALA 0 31 N, 32 61 E, 3740 feet (1140 meters) above sea level.
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People:
Africans of three main ethnic groups--Bantu, Nilotic, and
Nilo-Hamitic--constitute most of the population. The Bantu are the most numerous
and include the Baganda, which, with 18% of the population, constitute the
largest single ethnic group. Individual ethnic groups in the southwest include
the Banyankole and Bahima, 10%; the Bakiga, 8%; the Banyarwanda, 6%; the Bunyoro,
3%; and the Batoro, 3%. Residents of the north, largely Nilotic, include the
Langi, 6%, and the Acholi, 4%. In the northwest are the Lugbara, 4%, and the
Karamojong, 2%, occupy the considerably drier, largely pastoral territory in the
northeast. The Basoga, 8% and the Bagisu, 5% are among ethnic groups in the
East. Europeans, Asians, and Arabs make up about 1% of the population with other
groups accounting for the remainder.
Uganda's population is predominately rural, and its population density highest
in the southern regions. Until 1972, Asians constituted the largest
nonindigenous ethnic group in Uganda. In that year, the Idi Amin regime expelled
50,000 Asians, who had been engaged in trade, industry, and various professions.
In the years since Amin's overthrow in 1979, Asians have slowly returned and now
number around 30,000. Other nonindigenous people in Uganda include Arabs,
Western missionaries, non-governmental organization (NGO) workers, diplomats,
and business people.
When Arab traders moved inland from their enclaves along the Indian Ocean coast
of East Africa and reached the interior of Uganda in the 1830s, they found
several African kingdoms with well-developed political institutions dating back
several centuries. These traders were followed in the 1860s by British explorers
searching for the source of the Nile River. Protestant missionaries entered the
country in 1877, followed by Catholic missionaries in 1879.
In 1888, control of the emerging British 'sphere of interest' in East Africa was
assigned by royal charter to the Imperial British East Africa Company, an
arrangement strengthened in 1890 by an Anglo-German agreement confirming British
dominance over Kenya and Uganda. In 1894, the Kingdom of Buganda was placed
under a formal British protectorate.
Britain granted internal self-government to Uganda in 1961, with the first
elections held on March 1, 1961. Benedicto Kiwanuka of the Democratic Party
became the first Chief Minister. Uganda maintained its Commonwealth membership.
A second round of elections in April 1962 elected members to a new National
Assembly. Milton Obote, leader of the majority coalition in the National
Assembly, became prime minister and led Uganda to formal independence on October
9, 1962.
In succeeding years, supporters of a centralized state vied with those in favor
of a loose federation and a strong role for tribally-based local kingdoms.
Political maneuvering climaxed in February 1966, when Prime Minister Milton
Obote suspended the constitution, assumed all government powers, and removed the
ceremonial president and vice president. In September 1967, a new constitution
proclaimed Uganda a republic, gave the president even greater powers, and
abolished the traditional kingdoms. On January 25, 1971, Obote's government was
ousted in a military coup led by armed forces commander Idi Amin Dada. Amin
declared himself president, dissolved the parliament, and amended the
constitution to give himself absolute power.
Idi Amin's 8-year rule produced economic decline, social disintegration, and
massive human rights violations. The Acholi and Langi ethnic groups were
particular objects of Amin's political persecution because they had supported
Obote and made up a large part of the army. In 1978, the International
Commission of Jurists estimated that more than 100,000 Ugandans had been
murdered during Amin's reign of terror; some authorities place the figure much
higher.
In October 1978, Tanzanian armed forces repulsed an incursion of Amin's troops
into Tanzanian territory. The Tanzanian force, backed by Ugandan exiles, waged a
war of liberation against Amin's troops and Libyan soldiers sent to help him. On
April 11, 1979, Kampala was captured, and Amin fled with his remaining forces.
After Amin's removal, the Uganda National Liberation Front formed an interim
government with Yusuf Lule as president. This government adopted a ministerial
system of administration and created a quasi-parliamentary organ known as the
National Consultative Commission (NCC). The NCC and the Lule cabinet reflected
widely differing political views. In June 1979, following a dispute over the
extent of presidential powers, the NCC replaced Lule with Godfrey Binaisa. In a
continuing dispute over the powers of the interim presidency, Binaisa was
removed in May 1980. Thereafter, Uganda was ruled by a military commission
chaired by Paulo Muwanga. December 1980 elections returned the UPC to power
under the leadership of President Obote, with Muwanga serving as vice president.
Under Obote, the security forces had one of the world's worst human rights
records. In their efforts to stamp out an insurgency led by Yoweri Museveni's
National Resistance Army (NRA), they laid waste to a substantial section of the
country, especially in the Luwero area north of Kampala.
Obote ruled until July 27, 1985, when an army brigade, composed mostly of ethnic
Acholi troops and commanded by Lt. Gen. Basilio Olara-Okello, took Kampala and
proclaimed a military government. Obote fled to exile in Zambia. The new regime,
headed by former defense force commander Gen. Tito Okello (no relation to Lt.
Gen. Olara-Okello), opened negotiations with Museveni's insurgent forces and
pledged to improve respect for human rights, end tribal rivalry, and conduct
free and fair elections. In the meantime, massive human rights violations
continued as the Okello government murdered civilians and ravaged the
countryside in order to destroy the NRA's support.
Negotiations between the Okello government and the NRA were conducted in Nairobi
in the fall of 1985, with Kenyan President Daniel Moi seeking a cease-fire and a
coalition government in Uganda. Although agreeing in late 1985 to a cease-fire,
the NRA continued fighting, seized Kampala in late January 1986, and assumed
control of the country, forcing Okello to flee north into Sudan. Museveni's
forces organized a government with Museveni as president and dominated by the
political grouping called the National Resistance Movement (NRM or the
'Movement').
A referendum was held in March 2000 on whether Uganda should retain the Movement
system, with limited operation of political parties, or adopt multi-party
politics. Although 70% of voters endorsed retention of the Movement system, the
referendum was widely criticized for low voter turnout and unfair restrictions
on Movement opponents. Museveni was reelected to a second five-year term in
March 2001. Parliamentary elections were held in June 2001, and more than 50% of
contested seats were won by newcomers. Movement supporters nevertheless remained
in firm control of the legislative branch. Observers believed that the 2001
presidential and parliamentary elections generally reflected the will of the
electorate; however, both were marred by serious irregularities, particularly in
the period leading up to the elections, such as restrictions on political party
activities, incidents of violence, voter intimidation, and fraud.
A Constitutional Review Commission (CRC) issued a report proposing comprehensive
constitutional change in December 2003. The government, however, took issue with
many CRC recommendations and made counter-proposals in September 2004. A July
2005 national referendum resulted in the adoption of a multiparty system of
government and the subsequent inclusion of opposition parties in elections and
government.
In February 2006, the country held its first multiparty general elections since
President Museveni came to power in 1986. The election generally reflected the
will of the people, although serious irregularities occurred. Ruling NRM
candidate President Museveni was declared the winner with 59.26% of the vote,
giving him a third term in office following the passage of a controversial
amendment in June 2005 to eliminate presidential term limits. Opposition FDC
leader Kizza Besigye captured 37.39% of the vote, while the remaining
contestants received less than 2% of the vote each, according to official
figures from the Electoral Commission.
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HISTORY:
Africans of three main ethnic groups--Bantu, Nilotic, and
Nilo-Hamitic--constitute most of the population. The Bantu are the most numerous
and include the Baganda, which, with 18% of the population, constitute the
largest single ethnic group. Individual ethnic groups in the southwest include
the Banyankole and Bahima,10%; the Bakiga, 8%; the Banyarwanda, 6%; the Bunyoro,
3%; and the Batoro, 3%. Residents of the north, largely Nilotic, include the
Langi, 6%, and the Acholi, 4%. In the northwest are the Lugbara, 4%, and the
Karamojong, 2%, occupy the considerably drier, largely pastoral territory in the
northeast. The Basoga, 8%, are among ethnic groups in the east. Europeans,
Asians, and Arabs make up about 1% of the population with other groups
accounting for the remainder.
Uganda's population is predominately rural, and its population density highest
in the southern regions. Until 1972, Asians constituted the largest
nonindigenous ethnic group in Uganda. In that year, the Idi Amin regime expelled
50,000 Asians, who had been engaged in trade, industry, and various professions.
In the years since Amin's overthrow in 1979, Asians have slowly returned and now
number around 30,000. Other nonindigenous people in Uganda include Arabs,
Western missionaries, NGO workers, diplomats and business people.
When Arab traders moved inland from their enclaves along the Indian Ocean coast
of East Africa and reached the interior of Uganda in the 1830s, they found
several African kingdoms with well-developed political institutions dating back
several centuries. These traders were followed in the 1860s by British explorers
searching for the source of the Nile River. Protestant missionaries entered the
country in 1877, followed by Catholic missionaries in 1879.
In 1888, control of the emerging British 'sphere of interest' in East Africa was
assigned by royal charter to the Imperial British East Africa Company, an
arrangement strengthened in 1890 by an Anglo-German agreement confirming British
dominance over Kenya and Uganda. In 1894, the Kingdom of Buganda was placed
under a formal British protectorate.
Britain granted internal self-government to Uganda in 1961, with the first
elections held on March 1, 1961. Benedicto Kiwanuka of the Democratic Party
became the first Chief Minister. Uganda maintained its Commonwealth membership.
A second round of elections in April 1962 elected members to a new National
Assembly. Milton Obote, leader of the majority coalition in the National
Assembly, became prime minister and led Uganda to formal independence on October
9, 1962.
In succeeding years, supporters of a centralized state vied with those in favor
of a loose federation and a strong role for tribally-based local kingdoms.
Political maneuvering climaxed in February 1966, when Prime Minister Milton
Obote suspended the constitution, assumed all government powers, and removed the
ceremonial president and vice president. In September 1967, a new constitution
proclaimed Uganda a republic, gave the president even greater powers, and
abolished the traditional kingdoms. On January 25, 1971, Obote's government was
ousted in a military coup led by armed forces commander Idi Amin Dada. Amin
declared himself president, dissolved the parliament, and amended the
constitution to give himself absolute power.
Idi Amin's 8-year rule produced economic decline, social disintegration, and
massive human rights violations. The Acholi and Langi ethnic groups were
particular objects of Amin's political persecution because they had supported
Obote and made up a large part of the army. In 1978, the International
Commission of Jurists estimated that more than 100,000 Ugandans had been
murdered during Amin's reign of terror; some authorities place the figure much
higher.
In October 1978, Tanzanian armed forces repulsed an incursion of Amin's troops
into Tanzanian territory. The Tanzanian force, backed by Ugandan exiles, waged a
war of liberation against Amin's troops and Libyan soldiers sent to help him. On
April 11, 1979, Kampala was captured, and Amin fled with his remaining forces.
After Amin's removal, the Uganda National Liberation Front formed an interim
government with Yusuf Lule as president. This government adopted a ministerial
system of administration and created a quasi-parliamentary organ known as the
National Consultative Commission (NCC). The NCC and the Lule cabinet reflected
widely differing political views. In June 1979, following a dispute over the
extent of presidential powers, the NCC replaced Lule with Godfrey Binaisa. In a
continuing dispute over the powers of the interim presidency, Binaisa was
removed in May 1980. Thereafter, Uganda was ruled by a military commission
chaired by Paulo Muwanga. December 1980 elections returned the UPC to power
under the leadership of President Obote, with Muwanga serving as vice president.
Under Obote, the security forces had one of the world's worst human rights
records. In their efforts to stamp out an insurgency led by Yoweri Museveni's
National Resistance Army (NRA), they laid waste to a substantial section of the
country, especially in the Luwero area north of Kampala.
Obote ruled until July 27, 1985, when an army brigade, composed mostly of ethnic
Acholi troops and commanded by Lt. Gen. Basilio Olara-Okello, took Kampala and
proclaimed a military government. Obote fled to exile in Zambia. The new regime,
headed by former defense force commander Gen. Tito Okello (no relation to Lt.
Gen. Olara-Okello), opened negotiations with Museveni's insurgent forces and
pledged to improve respect for human rights, end tribal rivalry, and conduct
free and fair elections. In the meantime, massive human rights violations
continued as the Okello government murdered civilians and ravaged the
countryside in order to destroy the NRA's support.
Negotiations between the Okello government and the NRA were conducted in Nairobi
in the fall of 1985, with Kenyan President Daniel Moi seeking a cease-fire and a
coalition government in Uganda. Although agreeing in late 1985 to a cease-fire,
the NRA continued fighting, seized Kampala in late January 1986, and assumed
control of the country, forcing Okello to flee north into Sudan. Museveni's
forces organized a government with Museveni as president.
Since assuming power, the government dominated by the political grouping created
by Museveni and his followers, the National Resistance Movement (NRM or the
'Movement'), has largely put an end to the human rights abuses of earlier
governments, initiated substantial economic liberalization and general press
freedom, and instituted economic reforms in accord with the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and donor governments.
A referendum was held in March 2000 on whether Uganda should retain the Movement
system or adopt multi-party politics. Although 70% of voters endorsed retention
of the Movement system, the referendum was widely criticized for low voter
turnout and unfair restrictions on Movement opponents. Museveni was reelected to
a second five-year term in March 2001. Parliamentary elections were held in June
2001, and more than 50% of contested seats were won by newcomers. Movement
supporters nevertheless remained in firm control of the legislative branch.
Observers believed that the 2001 presidential and parliamentary elections
generally reflected the will of the electorate; however, both were marred by
serious irregularities, particularly in the period leading up to the elections,
such as restrictions on political party activities, incidents of violence, voter
intimidation, and fraud.
A Constitutional Review Commission (CRC) issued a report proposing comprehensive
constitutional change in December 2003. The government, however, took issue with
many CRC recommendations and made counter-proposals in September 2004. The
government currently proposes the introduction of a full multiparty system, an
increase in executive authority vis-Ã -vis the other branches, and the lifting
of presidential term limits. The elimination of term limits would clear the way
for Museveni to run again in 2006, and there are increasing signs that he wishes
to do so. However, this proposal and other suggested constitutional changes have
also produced significant controversy. It is not yet clear when or how the
constitution will be changed.
The vicious and cult-like Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) continues to murder and
kidnap civilians in the north and east. Although the LRA does not threaten the
stability of the government, LRA violence has displaced 1.4 million people and
created a humanitarian crisis. The Uganda Peoples Defense Force (UPDF) launched
'Operation Iron Fist' against LRA rebels in northern Uganda in 2002 and
conducted operations against LRA sanctuaries in southern Sudan with the
permission of the Sudanese Government. The Sudanese Government had previously
given support to the LRA.
In 1998, Uganda deployed a sizable military force to eastern Democratic Republic
of the Congo (DRC), ostensibly to prevent attacks from Ugandan rebel groups
operating there. There were widespread allegations that Ugandan military and
civilian officials were involved in the illegal exploitation of DRC natural
resources. After much international pressure, Uganda withdrew its troops from
DRC in June 2003.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
The 1995 constitution established Uganda as a republic with an
executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The constitution provides
for an executive president, to be elected every 5 years. President
Yoweri Museveni, in power since 1986, was elected in 1996 and reelected
in 2001 and 2006. Legislative responsibility is vested in the
parliament; legislative elections were last held February 2006. There
currently are 332 members of parliament, of which 79 are women. The
Ugandan judiciary operates as an independent branch of government and
consists of magistrate's courts, high courts, courts of appeals, and the
Supreme Court. Parliament and the judiciary have significant amounts of
independence and wield significant power.
Principal Government Officials
President and Commander in Chief--Yoweri Kaguta Museveni
Vice President--Dr. Gilbert Bukenya
Prime Minister--Apollo Nsibambi
Foreign Minister--Sam Kutesa
Minister of Defense--Crispus Kiyonga
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ECONOMY:
Uganda's economy has great potential. Endowed with significant natural
resources, including ample fertile land, regular rainfall, and mineral deposits,
it appeared poised for rapid economic growth and development at independence.
However, chronic political instability and erratic economic management produced
a record of persistent economic decline that left Uganda among the world's
poorest and least-developed countries.
Since assuming power in early 1986, Museveni's government has taken important
steps toward economic rehabilitation. The country's infrastructure--notably its
transportation and communications systems that were destroyed by war and
neglect--is being rebuilt. Recognizing the need for increased external support,
Uganda negotiated a policy framework paper with the IMF and the World Bank in
1987. It subsequently began implementing economic policies designed to restore
price stability and sustainable balance of payments, improve capacity
utilization, rehabilitate infrastructure, restore producer incentives through
proper price policies, and improve resource mobilization and allocation in the
public sector. These policies produced positive results. Inflation, which ran at
240% in 1987 and 42% in June 1992, was 5.4% for fiscal year 1995-96 and 5.1% in
2003.
Investment as a percentage of GDP was estimated at 20.3% in 2003 compared to
13.7% in 1999. Private sector investment, largely financed by private transfers
from abroad, was 14.9% of GDP in 2002. Gross national savings as a percentage of
GDP was estimated at 6.4% in 2003. The Ugandan Government has also worked with
donor countries to reschedule or cancel substantial portions of the country's
external debts.
Agricultural products supply nearly all of Uganda's foreign exchange earnings,
with coffee (of which Uganda is Africa's leading producer) accounting for about
19% and fish 17% of the country's exports in 2002. Exports of non-traditional
products, including apparel, hides, skins, vanilla, vegetables, fruits, cut
flowers, and fish are growing, while traditional exports cotton, tea, and
tobacco continue to be mainstays.
Most industry is related to agriculture. The industrial sector is being
rehabilitated to resume production of building and construction materials, such
as cement, reinforcing rods, corrugated roofing sheets, and paint. Domestically
produced consumer goods include plastics, soap, cork, beer, and soft drinks.
Uganda has about 30,000 kilometers (18,750 mi.), of roads; some 2,800 kilometers
(1,750 mi.) are paved. Most radiate from Kampala. The country has about 1,350
kilometers (800 mi.) of rail lines. A railroad originating at Mombasa on the
Indian Ocean connects with Tororo, where it branches westward to Jinja, Kampala,
and Kasese and northward to Mbale, Soroti, Lira, Gulu, and Kapwach, though the
routes west of Kampala and north of Mbale currently are not in use. Uganda's
important road and rail links to Mombasa serve its transport needs and also
those of its neighbors-Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of Congo and Sudan. An
international airport is at Entebbe on the shore of Lake Victoria, some 32
kilometers (20 mi.) south of Kampala.
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