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Introduction:
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Niger became independent from France in 1960 and experienced single-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU was forced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, which resulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infighting brought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup by Col. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999 BARE was killed in a coup by military officers who promptly restored democratic rule and held elections that brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year. TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world with minimal government services and insufficient funds to develop its resource base. The largely agrarian and subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extended droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa. |
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Geography
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Climate
The tables below display average monthly climate indicators in major cities
based on 8 years of historical weather readings.
Temperature by: Centigrade
NIAMEY 13 48 N, 2 16 E, 744 feet (227 meters) above sea level.
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AGADEZ SOUTH 16 96 N, 7 98 E, 1646 feet (502 meters) above sea level.
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DIFFA 13 41 N, 12 78 E, 1000 feet (305 meters) above sea level.
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GAYA 11 88 N, 3 45 E, 666 feet (203 meters) above sea level.
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ZINDER 13 78 N, 8 98 E, 1486 feet (453 meters) above sea level.
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PEOPLE
The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major
ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in
parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers
who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. The remainder of Nigeriens
are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples--Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri,
Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent
competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and
livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.
Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in
neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children
between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (152 per 1,000) due to generally poor
health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children.
Nonetheless, Niger's fertility rate (7.8%), is among the highest in the world,
and is far higher than the sub-Saharan African average of 5.4. It means that
two-thirds (66.7%) of the Nigerien population is under age 25. Primary school
net enrollment rate is 45% for men and 31% for women. Additional education
occurs through Koranic schools.
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HISTORY
Considerable evidence indicates that about 600,000 years ago, humans inhabited
what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Long before the
arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important
economic crossroads, and the empires of Songhai, Mali, Gao, Kanem, and Bornu, as
well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area.
During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed
southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire
of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late
18th century.
In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European
explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)--explored
the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at
pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert
Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony.
Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West
African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a
governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories,
including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants
of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization
of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory
assemblies.
A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the
passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by
reorganizational measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In
addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of
governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of
self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on
December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community.
Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed
to lapse.
For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party
civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of
devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military
coup that overthrew the Diori regime. Lieutenant Colonel Seyni Kountche and a
small group of military ruled the country until Kountche's death in 1987. He was
succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Brigadier General. Ali Saibou, who released
political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and
promulgated a new constitution. However, President Saibou's efforts to control
political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a
multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by
the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a
national conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the
adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The
debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof.
Andre Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a
transition government. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to
manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were
put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of
the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful
conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as
the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and
nonviolent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the
appearance of several new independent newspapers.
Rivalries within a ruling coalition elected in 1993 led to governmental
paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow
the Third Republic and its President, Mahamane Ousmane, in January 1996. While
leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National)
during a 6-month transition period, Bare enlisted specialists to draft a new
constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. After dissolving the
national electoral committee, Bare organized and won a flawed presidential
election in July 1996 and his party won 90% of parliament seats in a flawed
legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and
subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore
multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bare ignored an
international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's
economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime,
opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and
deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and
independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.
In the culmination of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference,
however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all Tuareg and
Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990, claiming they lacked
attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to
absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help
others return to a productive civilian life.
In April 1999, Bare was overthrown and assassinated in a coup led by Maj. Daouda
Mallam Wanke, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to
oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style
semi-presidential system. In votes that international observers found to be
generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution
in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and
November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing
Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja
won the presidency.
In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its
decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local
governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more
positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made
significant gains.
In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative
elections. Mamadou Tandja was elected to his second 5-year presidential term
with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called
generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a
democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy.
In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of
Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for
Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien
Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien
Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the
National Assembly.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the
semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third
Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage
for a 5-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive
power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral
legislature was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5-year term under
a proportional system of representation. Political parties must attain at least
5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. Niger's independent
judicial system is composed of four higher courts--the Court of Appeals, the
Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice, and the Constitutional Court. In
January 2007, the National Assembly voted to divide the Supreme Court into three
high courts--an Administrative Court, a Supreme Court of Justice, and an Audit
Court.
The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local
officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place July 24,
2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization
bills. As a first step, administrative powers have been distributed among 265
communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be
established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to
reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8
regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief
administrators in each region (Governor) and department (Prefect) are appointed
by the government and function primarily as the local agents of the central
authorities.
The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political
parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and
reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the
CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his
peers. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on
December 30, 2004. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred
in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order
within several days.
Principal Government Officials
President and Chief of State--Mamadou Tandja
Prime Minister--Hama Amadou
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation & African Integration--Aïchatou
Mindaoudou
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ECONOMY
One of the poorest countries in the world, ranking last on the United Nations
Human Development Index in both 2005 and 2006, Niger's economy is based largely
on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium
deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate, and
the uncertainty of world demand for uranium keep Niger's already marginal
economy vulnerable to crisis. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small
trading, seasonal migration, and informal markets dominate an economy that
generates few formal sector jobs.
Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 20% of
the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock
production--camels, goats, sheep, and cattle--said to support 29% of the
population. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its
southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has
difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid
to meet food requirements. In 2004 localized drought and locust infestations
contributed to a drop in global harvests of 11% and led the Embassy to make a
disaster declaration. This decrease, combined with chronic structural food
insecurity, high malnutrition, and other market factors, triggered a food crisis
which began in May-June of 2005. Although food security continues to be a
concern, the food crisis has ended thanks to good cereal harvests in 2005 and
2006. Millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence
crops. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are limited
quantities of garlic, peppers, gum arabic, and sesame seeds.
In the past, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, were second only to those
from uranium. As a result of the recent drought, however, earnings from
livestock dropped to fourth place behind uranium, onion, and gold exports.
Because earnings from livestock exports are difficult to quantify, in all
likelihood actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to
detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and
skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts. Therefore,
livestock continues to be one of Niger's most important trade commodities.
Recent rapid global price increases have led to higher revenues for Niger's
uranium sector, which provides approximately 30% of national export proceeds.
The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during
the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the
northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s,
however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited.
As a result of higher world prices, Niger's two uranium mines--COMINAK's
underground mine and SOMAIR's open-pit mine--are expected to increase uranium
output in 2007. These two companies are owned by a French-led consortium and
operated by French interests; however, Canadian and Chinese companies are
currently studying the feasibility of opening mines in Niger. Output from any
potential new mines probably could not occur until the end of 2008 at the
earliest.
Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between
the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004 President
Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in the region
of Tera and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a
historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first
commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company
called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako), which is a joint venture between a
Moroccan company--Societe SEMAFO Inc.--and a Canadian company--ETRUSCAN. Both
companies own 80% (40% - 40%) of SML and the GON 20%. In 2005, gold was Niger's
third most important export, accounting for 12.8% of the country's total
exports. Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum
also have been found in Niger. Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado
permit was awarded to Hunt Oil, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to the
China National Petroleum Company. An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture holds the
rights to the Agadem block, north of Lake Chad, but ceased exploration
activities in 2006. The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in
Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an
electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There
are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality
and may be exploitable.
The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the
Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average
economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due
to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1996 (which gradually resumed from
2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural
sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic
growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003. In 2005,
the economy showed strong growth (7.1% real GDP growth) as a result of the
agricultural sector's recovery from the poor harvests of 2004, and the continued
growth of non-agricultural sectors. In 2006, real GDP growth rates stabilized at
an estimated 4.5%.
In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment
code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992 and 2007), and mining code (1993),
all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks
foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and
development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP),
it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.
Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the
Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the
West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France
supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate
of 656 CFA to the euro.
Economic Reform
In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial
and economic problems, including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries
(11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue
performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for
enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) program for
Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund
on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In January 2001, Niger
reached its decision point and subsequently reached its completion point in
2004. Total relief from all of Niger's creditors is worth about $890 million,
corresponding to about $520 million in net present value (NPV) terms, which is
equivalent to 53.5% of Niger's total debt outstanding as of 2000. The debt
relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's
annual debt service obligations, freeing about $40 million per year over the
coming years for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS
prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty
reduction. The overall impact on Niger's budget is substantial. Debt service as
a percentage of government revenue was slashed from nearly 44% in 1999 to 10.9%
in 2003 and will average 4.3% during 2010-19. The debt relief cut debt service
as a percentage of export revenue from more than 23% to 8.4% in 2003, and
decreases it to about 5% in later years. In 2005, the IMF canceled all of
Niger's debts to it (approximately $111 million), incurred before January 2005.
In 2006, the African Development Fund canceled $193 million in debt for Niger.
Furthermore, the World Bank announced that approximately $745 million in debt
relief for Niger would be phased in over the next 37 years.
In addition to strengthening the budgetary process and public finances, the
Government of Niger has embarked on an ambitious program to privatize 12
state-owned companies. As of January 2005, seven had been fully privatized,
including the water and telephone utilities, with the remainder to be privatized
in 2005. A newly installed multisectoral regulatory agency will help ensure free
and fair competition among the newly privatized companies and their private
sector competitors. In its effort to consolidate macroeconomic stability under
the PRGF, the government is also taking actions to reduce corruption, and as the
result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a
Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary
education, rural infrastructure, agricultural production, environmental
protection, and judicial reform.
Foreign Aid
The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World
Bank, the IMF, and UN agencies--UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA. Other donors
include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, Italy,
Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Denmark, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID) does not have an office in Niger,
the United States is a major donor, contributing on average $12 million each
year to Niger's development. In 2006 Niger qualified for Millennium Challenge
Account threshold status, raising the prospect of significant U.S. Government
investment in sectors including basic education. The United States also is a
major partner in policy coordination in food security, education, water
management and HIV/AIDS sectors. The importance of external support for Niger's
development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY
2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derived from donor resources.
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